Preface

This is an attempt to describe the universe as it would be seen by an outside observer looking in, rather than by an inside observer looking out.  This describes the universe in terms of absolute units of space and time, rather than units which vary from one reference frame to another.

In the standard models of physics, Einstein’s equation E=mc² says that all MASS and PHOTONS are composed of the same stuff, ENERGY.  Spacetime is a medium in which the mass and photons exist, and through which they move.

In this analysis MASS, PHOTONS, and SPACETIME are all composed of the same stuff, ENERGY.

This is not a mathematical analysis.  It is a cause-and-effect analysis in which everything is explained in terms of everyday analogs, with absolutely no violations of any of the known and PROVEN laws of physics.

Time:  One obvious departure from the standard models is the speed of light, which the standard model mathematics treats as a constant through the use of a variable unit of time (called dilated time) which is a function of the local velocity and gravitational field (GF) which can vary from one reference frame to another.  This analysis uses a constant unit of time, independent of gravity and velocity, the same in every reference frame.

Space: One light-year=~1E16 meters.  One Planck length (1 PL) =1.6E–35meter; 1 lyr=~6E50 PLs; 14Blyr=~1E61 PL.  The standard model with its use of dilated time makes the energy of a photon appear to be directly related to the reciprocal of its wavelength (oscillation space).  With an absolute unit of time, the energy of a photon is constant and independent of whatever GF the photon goes through.  With absolute time, a stronger GF reduces the velocity and wavelength of the photon, but its energy (frequency, period of oscillation) is independent of gravity

Particles:  The standard models have a multiplicity of so-called fundamental particles, all composed of energy, with different “flavors” and “colors” but with no explanation of what makes them different.  In this model, everything can be explained in terms of one background quantum particle which we are referring to as a “BQ”.  The matrix of BQs exists everywhere throughout the universe and multiverse.

Mass and Photons:  All the mass and photon particles of the standard models are slight local variations (energy differences, E_Ds) in energies of BQs.  All motions of mass or photons are transfers of E_Ds between BQs.

Noise:  In addition to the quantized energy of the BQs and E_Ds of the universe, there is also some random noise energy which is one-dimensional, non-quantized, non-repeating, momentary, minor displacements which cannot become part of any stable quantum.  Noise is to the BQ matrix like thermal energy is to a solid material.  The atoms of a solid are composed of high-energy quanta bound together by lower-energy quanta.  The thermal energy is too low to become quantized except at very low temperatures where Bose-Einstein effects occur.

Gravity:  The standard models treat gravity as a continuous curvature of spacetime with the curvature resulting from the average mass over some region of space, with the resulting gravitational field (GF) being inversely proportional to the distance from that energy.  In this model, every G-wave begins at the size of one BQ on which an E_Ds resides momentarily.  Because the GF is inversely proportional to distance from the source, and because its source, a BQ, is so small, the GF is extremely strong near its origin.  This makes GRAVITY the fundamental force behind all the other forces.

Creation of the Universe:  The universe began when some random noise particles happened to simultaneously hit a BQ from 3 orthogonal directions, exploding that BQ into 1D fragments moving radially outward.  Those fragments then exploded the surrounding BQs until the wavefront curvature of those bits of outwardly-moving energy was too-small to cause any further BQ explosions.  That radius was about the size of the proton radius.

Elements

The accompanying figures show the elements of the universe in terms of the number of protons contained in each atomic nucleus, and the matching number of electrons orbiting around each nucleus.

A convenient way to remember the element numbers is to use line-by-line mnemonics:

All planets and stars and galaxies are composed of these exact same 100+ different kinds of atoms.  Each atom consists of a heavy atomic nucleus with some much-lighter-weight electrons orbiting around it.  Every one of the elements shown in this table is entirely composed of only two stable mass-particles, the electron and the proton.  The difference from one element to another is purely in the number of protons in the nucleus.  The number of orbiting electrons matches the number of protons.

The nucleus of every element (except protonic hydrogen) also contains a third type of particle, the neutron.  The neutron cannot exist by itself.  If a neutron does not have some protons nearby, it comes apart into its 2 separate building blocks, an electron and a proton, with a half-life of ~12 minutes.  This coming-apart or staying together may result from AQs being partially split apart by a GF_BH.

When we get more deeply into it, we find that there is a single particle, oscillating in space and time, which makes up all the all the MASS, ENERGY, and SPACE of our universe and surrounding multiverse.

Planck Particle:  In the standard models of physics, the “Planck particle” named after physicist Max Planck, is a hypothetical particle defined as a tiny black hole whose Compton wavelength is equal to its Schwarzschild radius.  Its mass is approximately the Planck mass, and its Compton wavelength and Schwarzschild radius are about the Planck length.  Planck particles may be used to define the Planck mass and Planck length.  They play a role in some models of the evolution of the universe.  Compared for example to a proton, the Planck particle is extremely small (its radius being equal to the Planck length, which is about 10⁻²⁰ times the proton's radius) and heavy (the Planck mass is about 10¹⁹ times the proton's mass).  It is assumed that such a particle would vanish in Hawking radiation.

Background Particle:  In this quantized spacetime model, the Planck particle (P_P) is not only a real quantum particle, it may be the spacetime background particle, the most numerous particle, making up everything everywhere, inside our universe and in the multiverse (or whatever might be there) outside our universe.  In this model, all of spacetime is a solid array of P_Ps, each with the Planck energy (E_P), each doing its perpetual quantum oscillations at the Planck frequency (F_P), through the Planck space (S_P) in the Planck time (T_P).  In truly “empty” space, these P_Ps are all oscillating synchronously, alternately sharing the same space, never interfering with each other’s oscillations.

Quantum Mechanics (QM):  QM successfully describes the many different particles of our material world and their interactions and forces, except for gravity.  Relativity describes gravity as a curvature of spacetime, the medium between quanta.  But relativity fails in the interior of black holes, because its math has no lower limit on spacetime structure.  This model does not supersede QM.  It simply applies the math of QM to spacetime.

Quantization of Spacetime:  In this model, all of spacetime inside the universe, and in the infinite multiverse or whatever is outside the universe, is made entirely of quantized energy, the same stuff of which QM says all ordinary mass-energy, photon-energy, and dark matter, are made.  Gravity results from interactions between ordinary quanta and spacetime quanta.  The standard QM models do not include gravity because they have not yet recognized the existence of the spacetime quanta, and so have not yet analyzed the interactions which are gravity.

DMPs & Gravity:  In this model, dark matter particles (DMPs) are the source of all gravity.  Coupled DMPS are the building blocks of every bit of ordinary E=mc² photon-energy and mass-energy of the universe.  Where there is a gradient in the gravitational field (GF), coupled DMPs move toward the source of the gravity.  Lone DMPs move more slowly, and move the opposite direction, away from the source of the gravity.

Black Hole (BH):  A BH is a region of space containing the maximum possible GF (which we are calling GF_BH).  A BH contains no ordinary energy or mass because any such coupled DMP particle entering a GF_BH field is immediately torn apart into its pure dark matter constituents, lone DMPs.  The event horizon of a BH is the boundary between outside where GF<GF_BH and inside where GF=GF_BH.  It is a spherical equilibrium bi-layer.  The outer layer is ordinary mass & energy (coupled DMPs).  The inner layer is dark matter (lone DMPs).  Ordinary mass particles are being pulled in and torn apart by the GF_BH field, into lone DMPs. On their way out, they meet similar lone DMPs, with the two joining to become ordinary matter, which is then pulled back in.  Ordinary matter is going in, and dark matter is going out at the same rate.  The outer layer of ordinary mass and energy (coupled DMPs) and inner layer (lone DMPs) are both perpetually generating gravity and keeping the interior field at GF_BH.

Size & Shape of a BH:  A BH is spherical for the same reason a floating soap bubble is spherical.  The air molecules inside are pushing out on the soap film, and the soap film molecules are attracting each other, trying to get as close together as possible.

This Model vs Standard Models:  A major difference between this model and the standard models is the unit of time.  This model uses a constant unit of time.  Such a unit of time was implied in “Physical Implications of a Fundamental Period of Time” by Garret Wendel, Luis Martinez, and Martin Bojowald, published in Physical Review Letters, dated June 19, 2020.  The standard models use the dilated time of relativity, which gives light a constant speed.  Back when relativity theory was developed, it was discovered that all clocks tick more slowly as GF is increased.  There was no absolute unit of time, so Einstein developed time dilation to use whatever clock-tick rate exists in the local reference frame.  Since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) in the 1960s, we know there is an absolute reference frame.  Laws of physics could use a constant unit of time instead of a constant speed of light.  With a constant unit of time, the speed of light is not constant but decreases as GF increases.

Energy, Wavelength, & Gravity:  With a constant unit of time, energy of a photon is completely independent of GF.  With a constant unit of time, wavelength of a photon decreases as GF increases, and does so at the same rate as in the standard model.  But a photon’s energy remains constant, and does not change as GF and wavelength change.  With a constant unit of time, the GF of a DMP is directly proportional to its energy, and inversely proportional to distance from the DMP.  As GF increases, an atom’s rest mass decreases (because its internal DMP energy decreases) and its GF contribution, to whatever GF it is in, decreases.  With a constant unit of time, an increase of GF causes a decrease in rest-mass of an atom and a corresponding decrease in energy of photons emitted by that atom.

Galactic Red-Shift:  The standard models treat the galactic red shift of distant galaxies as a Doppler shift resulting from those galaxies moving away from us.  In this quantized-spacetime model, light from distant galaxies is red, not because of velocity, but because the background GF was higher when they emitted that light.  Their photon energy was low when emitted, and has not changed on its way to us.  But the photon’s wavelength has increased because the background GF has been reduced.  A GF reduction increases photon velocity and wavelength, with zero change in photon energy.  The low-energy photons now arriving were emitted billions of years ago, when background GF was higher than now.  Background GF reduction resulted from dark matter continuing to move out, after ordinary matter had formed and stopped moving out.

Speed of Light:  The standard models say not only that the speed of light is constant, but also that nothing can ever travel faster than light.  And yet the standard models say there was an epoch called ‘inflation’ during which the universe expanded faster than light.  With the use of a constant unit of time, this new model concludes that gravity travels faster than light, and that the speed of gravity is the ultimate speed, and that during inflation the universe expanded at the speed of gravity.  During inflation the GF exceeded GF_BH, so light did not even exist.  When the GF became less than GF_BH, a fraction of the dark matter condensed into today’s photons, atoms, etc.  But by far the larger portion of the dark matter was not condensed, and, moved by its own gravity, continued its outward expansion.

Why a Particulate Model of Space?

Universality of Particles:  Why is everything particulate?  Nothing can be infinitely subdivided and still be what it was.  All the particles of ordinary mass-energy and photon energy have been definitely found to be made of discrete particles of energy.  There are good reasons why spacetime, the so-called ‘empty’ space which is between those particles, should also be considered to be particulate.

Ultraviolet Catastrophe:  Toward the end of the 19^th century, physicists ran into a problem known as the ‘ultraviolet catastrophe’.  They had mathematics which accurately predicted the electromagnetic energy radiated by a heated body at long wavelengths.  The problem was that this math said the electromagnetic energy radiated would approach infinity as the wavelength of that radiation got to the ultraviolet range and shorter.  In other words, the ultraviolet catastrophe was a mathematical singularity.  Max Planck solved this problem when he recognized that the radiated energy is not continuous but is quantized, divided into discrete packets of energy, or quanta.  He recognized that each quantum is always oscillating through a region with a discrete finite minimum size, a size which is inversely proportional to its energy content, a size which can NEVER go all the way to zero.  The photon (quantum) size can never go all the way to zero because zero size would be infinite energy.

Black-Hole Catastrophe:  Today’s physicists have a similar problem when they try to analyze black holes.  The math they use is relativity.  Relativity rigidly ties a photon’s energy to its wavelength, and has no lower limit on the size to which a photon or anything else can go as it approaches a black hole’s event-horizon, or goes through the event horizon and in toward the center of a black hole.  When the math allows the wavelength of a photon to go to zero as the photon goes through a black-hole event-horizon and to the center of the black hole, the mathematicians can only say “we have a singularity there”.  The obvious solution is to do exactly what Max Planck did, i.e. to recognize that whatever the math allows to go to zero is prevented by physical reality from doing so.  This means the minimum wavelength any photon can ever go to is its wavelength at the event horizon.

Quantization of Energy:  Physicists use the particulate math of quantum mechanics to analyze all mass energy and photon energy.  If they would apply the same math to empty space, they would have the real basic fundamental theory of everything.  The math of spacetime (empty space) is really the same math which applies to all matter and photons.  The only difference is in the energy of the particles.  The particles of spacetime are many trillions of trillions of times higher in energy (and therefore many trillions of trillions of times smaller in oscillation size) than the particles of ordinary matter and energy.  But the laws governing them are the same.  Planck showed that all energy is quantized.  Einstein showed, in his E=mc² equation, that all ordinary matter is made of the same stuff, quantized energy, as photons.

Quantization of Space:  It is time to recognize that all empty space (spacetime) is made of the same stuff, quantized energy, as everything else.  That is what this model attempts to do.  This model quantizes the spacetime, i.e. the ‘empty’ space which is between all particles of ordinary matter such as atoms, all ordinary energy such as photons, and all dark matter.  The particles of all ordinary atoms, photons, and dark matter are so much lower in energy than the spacetime particles that these ordinary particles are to the spacetime particles as thermal energy particles are to the ordinary atoms.  This particulate model makes it obvious just what is going on inside a black hole, what dark matter is, what the energy is and how it is distributed inside a black hole, how gravity really works, what kinetic energy is, what an electronic charge is, what an electric field is, what a neutrino is, what a photon is, what a quark is, what a proton is, what a neutron is, what causes all these things to do what they do, and many other physical phenomena which are beyond the capabilities of the standard models to explain.

The Quantum:  Energy can exist as discrete particles, or packets, or quantities.  A single packet is called a quantum, and multiple packets are called quanta.  Each quantum contains a specific quantity of energy.  That quantum is perpetually going through some kind of oscillations in space and time with the oscillation frequency being directly proportional to the energy.  Energy and frequency of a quantum are related by Planck’s constant, h=4.1E–15 electron-volt seconds.  This equation says that a quantum containing one electron-volt (1eV) of energy oscillates with a time period of 4.1E–15 seconds, which is a frequency of 2.4E14Hz, photon wavelength 1.2micron.

Units of Energy:  In this note, as in most notes about particle energies we are using the ‘electron volt’ as the unit to describe the various quantities of energy, but all can equally well be described in any of the many other frequently-used units of energy.  See the table of energy quantities, for conversion between the electron-volt (eV) and many other units of energy such as erg, joule, foot-pound, calorie, watt-second, kilowatt-hour, gallons of gasoline, grams of mass, etc.

Quantum Wave-Function:  In the standard model a quantum is a specific quantity of energy and is considered to be a point-particle.  It is described by a quantum wave-function which describes the probability of the point-particle quantum being located at some particular point in space and time.  Energy transfers between quanta are governed by the match of their wave-functions.  If closely matched in oscillation frequency, energy can easily be transferred.  The further apart they are in energy (frequency) the lower the probability of an energy transfer.  Low-energy quanta (such as thermal energies) are readily transferred between high-energy quanta (such as atoms), but with no change in the internal energies of any of the quanta involved.

What is Oscillating?:  The point-particle and wave-function are purely mathematical concepts, with no description of what the energy is, what is really oscillating, why the probability wave-function is what it is, and what is really going on down there.  A fundamental property of any quantum of energy is its oscillation.  But what is it that is oscillating?  The standard model cannot or will not answer this question and says that everything is in the math of the wave equation which predicts probabilities of interactions of particles occurring at times and spaces conforming to the Heisenberg principle.  The standard model says nothing at all about the real underlying physical mechanism behind all the interactions, about why it all takes place in the way that it does.  But there is some real cause-and effect physical mechanism down there which makes the quantum do what it does.  The underlying physical mechanisms used in this model may not be the only way to explain the physical reality, but this seems to at least provide a reasonable and understandable explanation.

Oscillations & Physical Reality:  In this model we start with some guesses as to what kind of physical reality that oscillation might be and how it produces the real physical effects which are observed.  We have no way to prove that this picture is correct, or that this is the only way to explain the physical reality.  Others may well come up with a better model, with better analogies.  But at least this model seems to match the physical reality with zero violations of all the known and proven laws of physics.  In developing this model, we make some guesses as to the reality. To be considered at all, all guesses have been required to conform in every detail with all of the experimental observations.  These guesses all strictly conform to what can be visualized in terms of the 3 dimensions of space and 1 dimension of time.  In this model, there is absolutely no need for the extra dimensions (which can never be visualized) of so many of the purely mathematical models.

Oscillations in this Model:  We propose an oscillating structure for the quantum which explains why it does what it does.  We view the quantum oscillation essentially as an oscillation in size, energy density, and electric charge.  We view the quantum oscillation as radial expansion and contraction between states of minimum and maximum size.  At minimum size it has a high energy density and positive (+) electric charge.  At maximum size it has a low energy density and a negative (–) electric charge.  Adjacent quanta are always 180 degrees out of phase, alternately occupying the same region of space, and with their alternating + and – charges always neutralizing each other.

Forces, Movements, Interactions:  We view the energy of a quantum, not as all being located in some specific point in space and time, but as perpetually moving out-and-in around some central location, or along some specific direction, at the oscillation frequency of the wave function.  We view the “probable location of a point-particle quantum” of quantum theory as the probability that an energy-exchange-interaction (EEI) between quanta will be centered on a specific spacetime location.  In accordance with the Heisenberg principle, the spacetime location of the interaction has a minimum size equal to the spacetime dimensions of the quantum oscillations.  It is an attempt to get down into the mechanical causes and effects, to analyze what is really going on down there.  There is something real going on down there.  The mathematics is not the reality.  The mathematics is only a quantification of the reality.

Size & Charge Oscillations:  To produce its wave-function, something in the quantum has to be oscillating in time and space.  But what is it that is oscillating?  In this model, the guess is that it is an oscillation of the size of the quantum, of the amount of space through which the energy of that quantum is repeatedly moving, or oscillating, at the oscillation frequency of the wave function.  The size of the quantum is inversely proportional to its energy, and its energy is directly proportional to, or is synonymous with, its frequency of oscillation.  It is as if the quantum sidewalls are repeatedly expanding and contracting at a constant velocity which may be designated as V_P, the particle velocity, or the Planck velocity, the quantum-to-quantum energy-transfer velocity.  Although the quantum’s quantity of energy is constant, its energy density decreases as its size increases, and vice-versa.  In its contracted (high energy density) phase the quantum is a positive (+) electric charge, and during its expanded (low-energy-density) phase it is a negative (–) electric charge.

3D Oscillations:  Quantum oscillations occur in 3D (3 dimensions) with the radius expanding and contracting equally in all 3, x, y, & z directions.  Internal energy transfer between quanta can only take place when their energies are sufficiently close to permit simultaneous 3D changes.  If a quantum receives a small amount of 1D or 2D energy, ∆E, from a neighboring quantum, it will retain that energy for only one oscillation cycle, and then transfer that ∆E on to a next neighbor.  In other words, low-energy ∆Es will pass right on from one high-energy quantum to another with no change to their internal energies.  This is analogous to the way thermal energy passes atom-to-atom with no change in the rest-energies of the atoms.

Assumptions:  We have no way to prove these guesses to be correct.  They may or may not be the best possible guesses as to what is really going on down there.  But at least they do conform 100% to all the experimentally known and proven facts, and violate none of the known and proven laws of physics.  So this is what we will assume to be the fundamental reason why the quantum does what it does.  This is what produces whatever forces, energy transfers, or changes in location those quanta experience.

Cause and Effect:  As noted above, in this analysis we are assuming that the cause and effect mechanism behind all quantum interactions is its oscillation, and that the oscillation is an alternating expansion and contraction, in a finite time period, through a finite region of space, at a frequency directly proportional to the energy of the quantum.

Mechanism:  One might also then ask “What is the mechanism causing that oscillatory expansion and contraction?”  Although that is a valid question to ask, the answer to it does not seem necessary for the purposes of this analysis.  The answer may be that “They do it simply because they are Planck particles”, or there may be some better model, but this seems to explain many mysteries.  We simply assume that, for whatever reason, this built-in expansion-contraction oscillation is what all quanta do, and this is why they interact the way they do.

Spacetime Particles:  This is a “Theory of Everything” which explains everything in terms of a single, non-zero, perpetually oscillating particle with finite size in its three dimensions of space and one dimension of time (3D space, 1D time).  In this model there is no such thing as truly empty space.  A single type of particle makes up everything inside our universe, as well as the infinite (or finite but unbounded?) space outside our universe.  In this note, that particle is being referred to as a Background Quantum Particle, or “BQ”.  All of space is packed full of these BQs.  Every atom is made of trillions of trillions of BQs.  All the space between atoms is entirely filled with BQs.  They are the medium through which energy-waves of photons, and every kind of force, moves from one location to another.  The movement of atoms, photons, and forces through this solid matrix of BQs is a simple matter of particle-to-particle energy transfer.  It is like the atom-to-atom energy transfer of sound waves moving through a solid block of iron.

Single Planck Particle:  One possible known candidate to be the BQ is the Planck particle.  The Planck particle is not a new particle which has been invented for this model.  The Planck particle is well known to the physics community but that community regards it as a purely hypothetical particle which could not possibly exist.  The Planck particle is the smallest size black-hole (BH) which could possibly exist.  It is regarded as purely hypothetical because if one ever did form, its energy density would be so high that it would immediately evaporate as some sort of energy with an extremely short wavelength.

Close-Packed Planck Particles:  But what would happen if large numbers of identical Planck particles were packed into a limited volume of space, in contact with each other, i.e. with their quantum waveforms overlapping?  In such close contact, the energy sent out by particles at BH status would be received by any nearby lower-energy-density particles, bringing them to BH status and re-radiating that energy.  There would be a perpetually on-going back-and-forth energy transfer between these particles.  This is exactly the process needed for the proposed space-time atoms, the BQs of this model.

                                                  Quantum Waveform of a Single Background Quantum Particle (BQ)

                                  Quantum Waveforms of a Close Packed Array of Background Quantum Particles (BQs)

The accompanying figures show the quantum waveform a single BQ would have, and what these would add up to in a close-packed array of BQs, all with the same energy.  The quantum waveform gives the probability of the particle being found at any specific space-time location, or the probability that some sort of energy-exchange interaction will occur at some space-time location.  As can be seen, the probability has ups and downs at various locations away from the center.  This is consistent with the probability of interaction being the result of energy going out from one particle, striking or missing the nearest, and continuing out until finally absorbed by others.

Particles of the Multiverse, and of our Universe

Quantum Particles:  A quantum particle is a fixed quantity of energy which is perpetually undergoing space-time oscillations at a frequency directly proportional to its energy (inversely proportional to its oscillation time) through a space inversely proportional to its energy.

BQ

Background Quantum Particle (BQ):  The primary particle of the multiverse is the BQ.  All of space inside and outside our universe is solidly packed with BQs.  We can only say that this array of BQs must extend in all directions to infinity, because we cannot imagine what could be beyond it, if it did end somewhere.  The BQ is a quantum particle, and is the highest-energy (highest frequency, shortest oscillation time, smallest oscillation space) quantum particle which can exist.  The multiverse, including our universe, is entirely made of BQs, all with the same identical energy and spacetime oscillations.  This matrix of BQs is the background on which everything in our universe takes place.  Every BQ contains exactly the same background-particle energy, (E_BQ), same oscillation frequency (F_BQ), same oscillation space (S_BQ), same oscillation radius (R_BQ), and same oscillation time (T_BQ).  The oscillation radius and oscillation time give us an important constant, the maximum possible velocity, V_B, at which energy is transferred between BQs.

Spacetime Oscillations of BQs:  The most basic fundamental building block of our universe, the surrounding ‘empty’ space, and any other universes which might be out there is the space-time atom (the BQ, or the background quantum, or the space-time particle, or STP, or the space-time atom, or statom, or whatever you would like to call it).  These BQs are all identical; all in synchronous space-time oscillation, with adjacent BQs alternately occupying the same space during each cycle of oscillation time.  The BQ spacetime oscillation is also an oscillation between + and – electric charge, which is a key to making the electric fields of photons and the electronic charges of mass particles.  If each BQ has exactly the same energy, its energy density is oscillating between a high and low energy-density.  During every oscillation cycle, each BQ is in a + phase for ½ cycle and a – phase for ½ cycle.  Neighboring BQs are oscillating 180^o out-of-phase, so the positives and negatives always cancel out.  If the BQs are Planck particles, they are alternating between absorbing and emitting energy.

DMP

Dark-Matter Particle (DMP):  Next in our lineup of quantum particles is the dark-matter particle (DMP).  This is the particle which makes our universe different from the surrounding multiverse.  Each DMP is a quantum particle with energy E_D, far less energy than the energy E_BQ of a BQ.  But unlike the BQs which all contain the same quantity of energy, a DMP can contain any quantity of energy, E_D, which is very small compared to the energy, E_BQ, of a BQ.  Since a DMP’s energy content is much smaller than the BQ’s, the DMP’s oscillation space extends out over many of the surrounding BQs, and its oscillation time period extends over many BQ time periods.  A lone DMP is a quantum with energy E_D, oscillating radially in spacetime at frequency F_D =E_D/h, between a + phase and a – phase.  In zero GFG, the center of oscillation remains stationary in space.  In non-zero GFG, each oscillation moves the center of oscillation away from the higher GFG and toward the lower GFG.  A lone DMP has no inertia, no kinetic energy, and no momentum.

DMP Space-Time Oscillations:  A DMP can have any energy E_D, as long as E_D<<E_BQ.  Any quantity E_D of energy has a time-oscillation-dimension with a time period T_D, given by T_D=T_BP (E_BQ /E_D).  It has a space-oscillation-dimension which extends between a core location and a reflection surface (or re-radiation surface) with size S_D=S_BQ (E_BQ/E_D), and radius of oscillation R_D=R_BQ (E_BQ/E_D).  As with the BQ, each DMP oscillation cycle has a + phase and a – phase.

DMPs & Gravity:  Every bit of gravity in the universe is generated by DMPs.  Wherever the DMP energy, E_D, is located, it adds its energy-difference, E_D, to the energies E_BQ of the local background particles.  This produces interference waves with the BQ oscillations, traveling radially out from the DMP location, as outwardly-moving spherical regions where the E_D oscillates between being in-phase, and out-of-phase, with the ever-present BQ oscillations.  The DMP oscillations produce gravity waves (GWs) at the frequency F_D, which is the beat-frequency difference between energies E_BQ and E_BQ+E_D.  All GWs are identical in amplitude vs radius, no matter what the energy of the DMP generating them.  They are different in frequency because each set of GWs is passing any given location at the frequency of the E_D generating those GWs.

This figure shows Gravity Waves Generated by DMP.  DMP Min is region where DMP switches from contraction to expansion.  DMP Max is region where DMP switches from expansion to contraction.

Gravitational Field (GF):  Every DMP is surrounded by a gravitational field (GF) extending outward from that DMP.  The strength of the GF of any specific DMP at a specific distance from that DMP, is directly proportional to the energy of that DMP, and inversely proportional to the distance its GPs have traveled since leaving that DMP.  A DMP’s GF is always the same, no matter whether it is a lone DMP or is coupled to another DMP in an AQ, or is one of many DMPs in multiple AQs coupled together in complex particles.  Every DMP is perpetually sending out its own set of GPs at the frequency of its own energy.  The GF of any specific DMP at any specific region in space is a set of momentary displacements of the BQs of that region from their locations.  The total GF at any specific point in space and time in the universe is the sum total of all the GFs from all the universe, arriving at that specific point in space and time.

Black Hole Gravitational Field (GF_BH):  A black hole is a region of space in which the GF is so high that DMPs cannot remain linked together as AQs.  There is a constant number (radius multiplied by total energy) which specifies the radius at which any specific quantity of energy becomes a black hole.  Inside that radius, the local BQ displacements are sufficiently energetic to break-up the AQs into lone DMPs.  This is what happens at the surface, the event horizon, of any macroscopic black hole.  The GFG separates the multi-AQ quanta into their individual components, starting with breaking the lowest-energy bonds, and then higher-and-higher-energy bonds, and finally breaking the bonds which hold together the 2 DMPs of every AQ.  Those lone DMPs are then pushed outward by GFG.  The density of DMPs out there is sufficiently high that compatible DMPs will meet and join and form AQs which are then pulled back in by the GFG, where they again come apart.  At the surface (event horizon) of the BH, there is this on-going equilibrium process of DMPs trying to escape and the AQs formed from escapees being pulled back in.  Low energy DMPs, with oscillation radius near the BH radius, are the ones most likely to get away.  This ongoing process of lone DMPs going out, coupling and coming back in, un-coupling and going out, coupling and coming back in, etc. is the process going on perpetually throughout the entire universe and multiverse.  The background of everything is an infinite array of smallest-possible-size black holes, oscillating between being lone and coupled DMPs.

The accompanying drawing represents a DMP and a gravity wave, or beat-frequency-perturbation (BFP) which the DMP has just generated.  The BFP is a spherical surface of momentary displacements of BQs, produced by the reflection of the DMP energy.  Each BFP travels outward from the DMP at the speed of BQ-to-BQ oscillation.  Amplitude of BQ displacements in the BFP is inversely-proportional to distance from center of DMP.  In other words, BFP amplitude at reflecting surface is R_BQ/R_D (radius of BQ oscillation divided by radius of DMP oscillation).  From there on out, BFP amplitude decreases in proportion to radial distance from DMP.

DMP movements:  In a very low or zero GFG (GF Gradient) the DMP space oscillation is radially out-and-in from a core location which remains stationary in space.  Where there is a GFG, the oscillation is affected such that each oscillation cycle moves the DMP in the direction away from the higher GF and toward the lower GF.

Origin of DMPs:  Our universe began with the BIG BANG, when all of its DMP energy suddenly appeared in a concentrated form in a region about the size of a proton.  Our universe is a spherical portion of the multiverse, containing the total quantity of DMP energy of our universe, E_U, created by the BIG BANG, which was the beginning of our universe.  It all began at a one-statom location in the infinite background of statoms.  The total radius, R_U, of our universe increases by one BQ-oscillation size, S_BP, with each oscillation of the background BQ matrix. This is the velocity V_BP=S_BP/T_BP where S_BP and T_BP are the space and time-period of the BQ oscillation.  In other words, the radius of the universe, R_U, is still growing at speed V_BP, and is now R_U=V_BP x T_U where T_U is the age of the universe, the total absolute time elapsed since the Big Bang.

AQs

Coupled DMPs (AQs):  An AQ is a quantum-particle composed of two DMPs held together because they are always in opposite phases of their oscillations, one in its positive (+) phase and the other in its negative (–) phase.  When 2 DMPs are coupled into an AQ, those 2 DMPs are in opposite phases, and their centers are on 2 adjacent or nearby BQs in matching phases.  They are equal in energy content so their phases change simultaneously, with their opposite charges always holding them together.  These are the building blocks of every bit of ordinary mass and available energy of our universe.  In this note, we are labeling them ‘AQs’ because they are the only quantities of energy available to us.  The lone DMPs are detectable by us through the GFs they produce, but (at least so far) their energy is not available to us.

Creation of AQs:  All of today’s available energy, all the AQ energy of the universe, was created at the end of the ‘inflation’ era, when the GF fell below the GF_BH value, allowing stable DMPs to form.  Before that time, the energy density and GF were too high for DMPs to retain stable energies.  When the GF dropped below the critical GF_BH value, stable DMPs formed and their density was high enough for some to meet and form AQs.  It is estimated that only some small percentage (10 to 20%, or less?) of the total DMP energy became coupled into AQs.  These AQs then further condensed into the neutrinos, photons, protons, electrons, etc.  The remaining lone-DMPs of the universe kept moving outward, and are still moving outward today.

Linear Motion of the AQ:  A major difference between the 2-DMP AQ and a lone DMP is that a lone DMP can remain stationary in space, while the AQ cannot remain stationary but must perpetually keep moving from BQ-to-BQ at the BQ oscillation rate.  The DMP energy, E_D, consists of minute energy differences extending out over a very large volume of BQs which are in the same phase as the E_D is currently in.  But since the BQ phases are changing far more rapidly than the E_D phase, the E_D must transfer from BQ-to-BQ once every BQ oscillation.  In a lone DMP, these are all radial transfers, in one phase on the way out and the opposite phase on the way in, so they can go out and in around a single location.  But in the AQ, they are linear transfers along the line joining the 2 DMPs, or perpendicular to that line.  The 2 DMPs are in opposite phases, as also are the 2 BQs on which they are momentarily centered.  The result is that each time the BQs switch phases, those 2 DMPs must move one corresponding BQ distance.  A lone DMP can remain stationary in space.  But the AQ with its 2 linked DMPs must keep perpetually moving BQ-to-BQ.  This perpetual motion of the AQ applies regardless of whether it is a lone AQ or is combined with many other AQs, as in any of the much more complex particles.

Motion of AQ in GF:  The GF at any spacetime location is the scalar sum of all the GFs arriving at that spacetime location from the entire universe.  In a zero GF, the path of the perpetually moving AQ is a pure straight line.  But in a GF, the BQ random displacements add many little zigzags to the path of that AQ.  The total distance the AQ has moved in an absolute unit of time is the same as in zero GF, but the forward distance the AQ has moved is reduced by the zigzags.  (This is why, when measured with an absolute unit of time, speed of light decreases as GF increases, and goes to zero at GF=GF_BH.  It is also why all clocks tick more slowly as GF increases, and entirely stop at GF=GF_BH.)

Motion of AQ in GFG:  The GFG at any spacetime location is a vector representing the gradient of the GF at that location.  The GF consists of many random displacements of the BQs from their zero-GF locations.  As noted above, in a GFG, DMPs move away from the high GF, and toward the lower GF.  But the AQs move the opposite direction, toward the higher GF.  This difference is the result of the lone-DMP oscillation being purely radial, while in the AQ, the DMP oscillations are accompanied by linear movements.

Neutrinos and Antineutrinos (Neutrinons):  The simplest of the AQs are the neutrinos and antineutrinos, each of which is a single AQ, i.e. 2 linked DMPs.  As noted above, those 2 DMPs remain linked together because they are always in opposite phases of their oscillations, one in its + phase and the other in its – phase, always changing phase simultaneously so they are always attracted to each other.  There are 3 types of neutrino, named the electron neutrino, mu neutrino, and tau neutrino, or e, mu, and tau, or e, μ, and τ neutrinos.  These 3 types of neutrino may be different in the number of BQs separating the 2 DMPs which comprise them.  This attraction can extend over multiple BQs, so the 2 DMPs can remain linked even when more than one BQ apart.  In neutrinons, those 2 DMPs must perpetually keep traveling along the line joining them.  At the same time, the DMPs are rotating around the line of travel.  The only difference between the neutrino and antineutrino is the direction of rotation around the line.  The rotation in the neutrino is counter-clockwise, and of the antineutrino clockwise.  This is the direction as seen by an observer behind the neutrino, because you can never see a neutrino coming.  You can see it only after it has passed.

Koide Formula:  The 3 different types of neutrinon, e, mu, and tau (which are AQs traveling on a straight-line at or close to the speed of light) are clearly associated with the 3 rest the-mass particles (RMPs. Leptons) known as the electron, muon, and tauon. The Koide formula is an unexplained empirical equation (discovered by Yoshio Koide in 1981) which shows some sort of geometrical relation between the rest masses of the electron, muon, and tauon.  As is described in the section on RMPs, every RMP contains AQs traveling on circular orbits at the speed of light, with the mass-energy of the AQ being inversely proportional to the size of its orbit.  The electron, which has the lowest mass-energy of the 3 particles, would have the largest orbit.  This may be the explanation of the Koide formula.

Electric Field of Neutrinon:  A neutrinon is an electric dipole because it always has one DMP in its + phase and the other in its – phase.  But it has no detectable electric field because those charges and their gravitons are so close together, and because these 2 DMPs are aligned along the direction of travel.  And because the neutrinon is moving so fast, its E-field at any one location lasts for too short a time to be detected by any macroscopic equipment.  But it can be detected through energy-exchange interactions it produces in certain atomic nuclei, if it hits them just right.

Photons:  A photon consists of multiple AQs linked together, always traveling through space at the speed of light.  When two AQs are aligned along the direction of travel, as in a neutrinon, they produce no detectable electric field because the field at any nearby macroscopic location is in the direction of motion and covers too small an area for too short a time to be detected.  But AQs aligned perpendicular to the line of travel produce an electric field because the gravitons from their + charges are going out on one side of the photon path, and those from the – charges on the opposite side of the path.  The result is a macroscopic, readily detectable, electric field across the photon path, lasting for the oscillation time period of the photon, long enough to produce macroscopic energy-exchanges.

Rest Mass Particles (RMPs):  A rest-mass particle (RMP), is a particle which can remain at a stationary location in space.  Like photons or any other particle of available energy, the RMP is entirely composed of AQs, all of which must perpetually move through spacetime at the speed of light.  In the photon, those AQs are moving in a straight line at the speed of light.  In an RMP, those AQs are moving at the same speed as in a photon, but along a circular or spiral path, rather than a straight-line path.  Every possible RMP which can exist in our universe (and probably in any other universes as well) owes its existence to the ability of AQs to follow these circular, or spiral, paths.  If an RMP is stationary in absolute space, its path is a purely circular orbit, with each AQ emitting two equally-spaced gravitons every time around, one for each DMP.  If it is moving through absolute space (at any velocity which of course is less than the local speed of light) its path is a spiral with an axis in the direction of motion and a radius the same as for a circular orbit.  The radius of the path is a constant value, fixed by the geometry of the spacetime background.

BQ Matrix Oscillations:  The fundamental mechanism of the BQ oscillations is the ongoing absorption and re-radiation of energy by neighboring BQs.  The radiant energy being absorbed by a BQ consists of coupled DMPs (AQs).  This absorption of AQs by the BQ continues until the energy/radius-ratio of that BQ reaches the BH (Black Hole) value, and its internal gravitational field (GF) reaches the critical GF_BH value.  At this field, all absorbed-AQs are broken up into individual DMPs.  Since AQs and DMPs move opposite directions in a gravitational-field gradient (GFG), those DMPs are expelled from that BQ into the surrounding lower-GF region.  Out there, those DMPs meet other DMPs and become coupled into AQs.  Those AQs are moved by the GFG into the nearest BQ, where they are again broken up into lone DMPs, and re-expelled.  This is the perpetual ongoing synchronous oscillation process taking place everywhere throughout the multiverse.

Electrons and Antielectrons:  An electron is the lowest-energy, stable, RMP which can exist.  An electron is one half of a photon which was split into two half-photon pieces.  The split occurred at the point in the path where the E-field was reversing.  The two ends of each half then joined together, and the AQs in them continued moving at the same speed as before, but in a circle or spiral, instead of on a straight line.  In each half-photon, the constituent DMPs change phase such that one phase is always toward the inside of the circle or spiral, and the other toward the outside.  In the electron, the + phase is always toward the inside, hidden from the outside world, and the – phase is always toward the outside, so the outside world always sees the electron as only a – charge.  Its opposite, the positron (antielectron) has its DMPs aligned the opposite direction, giving it a + charge.  One cannot be formed without the other.  This electron and positron were formed from a photon which had enough energy to supply each with its rest-energy plus enough kinetic energy to move them sufficiently far apart to prevent them from immediately recombining into a photon.

Electron-Positron Generation:  An electron and positron are made from a photon called a ‘weak boson’.  As with any photon, this has its quanta arranged alternately on opposite sides of its path.  It also has sufficient total energy to produce the rest energies of the electron and positron, plus enough kinetic energy to separate them after they have formed.  The electron-positron pair forms when something, such as an interaction with another particle or simply noise or gravity waves in the BQ matrix, bend the photon path enough for both ends of the + side to meet, and both ends of the – side to meet, link up, stay together, turn the excess energy into kinetic energy and go their separate ways as an electron and positron.  Each has a one-BQ displacement between its internal and external volumes.  Those displacements are maintained by the rotation of the + and – directions of the quanta being synchronous with the motion around the center.

Figure Showing Conversion of Photon into Electron and Positron

This figure shows how a photon with energy somewhat greater than 1MeV (a weak-boson) can be transformed into an electron and positron.  A similar but much more-complex process takes place when a photon with far greater energy (a Higgs boson) is converted into a multiplicity of quarks, most of which are unstable but a few of which can assemble into stable protons and antiprotons, and various semi-stable mesons.

Kinetic Energy:  Kinetic energy is two AQs (a neutrino, ν, and antineutrino, ѷ) linked together.  They are the circulating energy of an RMP.  They are both circling in the same plane, on a fixed-radius path, with curvature established by the electric field (EF) of that RMP.  Because the ν and ѷ are traveling opposite directions, the centers of their radii (the center of the RMP) remain stationary in absolute space if they are equal in energy.  With different ν and ѷ energies, the RMP can move through absolute space at any velocity less than the speed of light.  Kinetic energy is linear energy which matches the circulating energy of an RMP to the velocity of that RMP through space.  If an RMP is being accelerated by a gravitational field such as that of the earth, the energy producing that acceleration is not coming from the field or from the earth.  The energy is coming directly from the RMP itself, through some of that RMP’s circulating energy being converted into kinetic energy.  The mechanism whereby this conversion takes place stems from the absolute requirement for the radius of circulation to be fixed, and from the requirement for the circulating energy to have a wavelength matching the orbit.

Rest-Mass Energy & Gravity:  The requirement for a fixed radius and a matching wavelength applies to all forms of circulating energy, whether that energy is in an atomic nucleus, in an electron itself, or in the orbital energy of an electron circulating around a nucleus.  It is this requirement that forces any RMP to convert some of its circulating rest-mass energy into linear kinetic energy as it goes from a lower-GF into a higher-GF region of space.  The higher GF adds more zigzags to the path of the quantum, shortening its wavelength.  To remain at the same radius-matching constant wavelength, the quantum must get rid of some of its energy.  It does that with the assistance of its kinetic-energy AQs which can easily transfer energy between the neutrino & antineutrino components.

Future of AQ Energy:  After the AQs condensed, they stopped moving outward because in a gravitational-field gradient (GFG), all AQs move toward the higher GF rather than toward the lower GF as do the DMPs.  The movement of DMPs toward the lower GF was the whole reason for the expansion of the universe right from the start.  At any rate, the movement of AQs toward the higher GF caused all particles composed of AQs to form into photons and atoms and stars and whirlpool galaxies which eventually pull all these AQ composites into a central gigantic central black hole, or into minor black holes on their way into the center.  AQs cannot exist inside a black hole.  In there, the GF is so high that collisions and energy-exchanges occur too frequently for the coupled DMPs to maintain constant energy, which is necessary for them to remain coupled.  As a result, all AQs are broken into separate DMPs when they cross the BH event horizon, which is a bi-layer consisting of AQs trying to get in and DMPs trying to get out.  There is a possibility for a lone DMP to escape the BH if its energy is low enough for its oscillation radius to exceed the BH radius.  Some of the dark matter detected in galaxies just might be such escapees.  The accompanying figure illustrates the action taking place at the event horizon, the transition zone between the outer GF<GF_BH region and the inner GF=GF_BH or GF>GF_BH region.

Cross-Section through Interior and Exterior of a Black Hole and its Event-Horizon.  The Event-Horizon is a region containing lone DMPs and coupled DMPs (AQs), between the interior and exterior regions of the Black Hole.

Close-Up view of Black-Hole Event Horizon

Possible use of String Theory?:  In completely ‘empty’ space, all BQs are perfectly identical, all oscillation perfectly the same in time period and perfectly the same in radius of oscillation, i.e. expanding and contracting by the same amount, at the same velocity in all 3 directions of space.  In this empty-space condition, the math of string theory may be applicable because, in empty space, everything can be described by 2 dimensions:  Radius and Time.  A lone dark-matter particle (DMP) can be described by one additional dimension, the energy difference (E_D) between that DMP and the BQ energy (E_B).

Big Bang:  Our universe exists because at some point in space and time there was a BIG BANG which changed the energy of some BQs at what is now the center of our universe.  It is not yet established whether this might have been the result of some additional energy suddenly being added to the background BQs, or whether it might have been the result of the sudden breakup of some background BQs.  Such a BQ breakup or energy transfer might be triggered by chance collisions of some random background noise particles.

Background Noise:  A quantum of energy, such as a statom, is a quantity of energy with repetitive motions, going through the same cycle of motions over and over again.  In the lattice of fixed-energy BQs, there can also be random noise energy.  This would be random linear motions which are simply transferred from BQ to BQ with random repetition.  Space-time oscillations of BQs are purely radial oscillations in space because their out-in-out motions have exactly the same radius in all 3 dimensions of space.  Spacetime noise particles are displacements in only one space dimension, which momentarily change some BQ sizes in one space dimension, with no repetition in time, so there is normally no transfer of energy between the noise particle and the BQs.

Big Bang Triggered by Noise:  If one BQ is simultaneously hit by multiple random-noise-energy particles at orthogonal directions and at close to the BQ oscillation time (similar to the formation of ‘rogue-waves’ on the ocean) they might trigger its breakup and the breakup of many surrounding BQs, producing a BIG BANG, starting a new universe.  If the current estimates of the total energy of the universe, E_U, are correct, and if the BQ energy and size are the Planck energy and size, the total energy of the universe would correspond to the breakup of all the BQs in a sphere with a radius of about 1E–15 meter.

After the Big Bang:  That energy would have all been dark matter, expanding radially outward from its origin at the maximum possible speed.  If that maximum possible speed is close to today’s speed of light, then that dark matter would have been expanding for some 15 billion years of absolute time before its gravitational field (GF) was low enough for ordinary energy and mass (bosons and fermions) to form.  During that first 15Byr period, the GF was higher than today’s black-hole GF (GF_BH) so neither photons nor RMPs (rest-mass particles) could form.  They could not form because the distance between collisions was too short.  The energy of a quantum is the inverse of its space-time distance between collisions.  The dark-matter particles (DMPs) had energies greater than the binding energy which ties two DMPs together via their + and – charges. 

Kinetic Energy:  Kinetic energy itself may very well consist of energy differences between one AQ and another, traveling in opposite directions relative to their rotations.  In other words, absolute kinetic energy of a composite particle may be the energy difference between a neutrino and antineutrino linked together in that composite particle.  During the condensation, all the AQs and more complex particles might all have been formed with some absolute random velocities, i.e. kinetic energies, made up of the differences in energies of the DMPs from which they were formed. 

What is Gravity?  Gravity is a term referring to a force which moves bodies having mass toward each other.  This movement occurs even though there is nothing but so-called ‘empty space’ in the void between them.  The standard models of physics recognize that something has to be there to produce this ‘action at a distance’.  They often refer to this void as ‘spacetime’, but give no explanation of what it is or how it does what it does.  Relativity theory says it is a result of ‘curvature of space’, but gives no explanation of what is being curved, or what this means.  This particle-multiverse model presents a clear mechanism describing exactly how gravity works and why it does what it does.

Mechanism of Gravity.  To try to understand the mechanism by which gravity works, we must first get into a description of what this spacetime is, because gravity results from interaction of this spacetime background with dark-matter, as well as with ordinary mass and energy.  Quantum mechanics has been successful at explaining much about energy.  It has been found that energy is not a continuous medium.  Energy is contained in discrete packets, or particles, called quanta.  Each quantum contains a finite specific quantity of energy.  The energy in that quantum is never stationary, but is in perpetual motion.  That perpetual motion is a space-time-oscillation at a frequency directly proportional to the energy in the quantum.  (A quantum’s energy and frequency are directly related by the equation F=E/h where h is Planck’s constant.  h=6.58211889E–16 electron-volt Sec=1E–37kwSec².  This relationship was discovered by Max Planck in 1900.)

Spacetime Background.  In this ‘particle-multiverse’ model, all of space is completely filled with identical quantum particles.  We are referring to these as BQs, because they are the background quanta.  This matrix of BQs is the background on which everything happening inside and outside the universe takes place.  Since the BQs are all completely identical, each has exactly the same energy and is oscillating at exactly the same frequency.  Because they are all at the same frequency, there is never any interference between neighboring BQs.

Beat Frequency.  A group of violinists playing the same tone with perfectly tuned instruments produce that tone at constant volume.  But if one violin is playing at 895 cycles per second while all the others are at 890, there will be a 5 cps variation in volume.  This 5 cps variation is referred to as the beat frequency. It is equal to the difference between the two higher frequencies.  This beat frequency is an oscillation with a wavelength equal to 5 times the wavelength of the primary tones.  The amplitude of this beat-frequency oscillation decreases as radial distance from its source increases.

Gravity Waves (Gravitons) are Beat-Frequency Differences between Dark Matter and Spacetime:  This is exactly the mechanism responsible for gravity.  All the spacetime background particles, the background quanta, or BQs, are oscillating at the background-particle frequency F_B because each has energy E_B.  Now suppose there is one quantum (which we will call DQ) with slightly different energy, i.e. energy E_B+E_D, where E_D<<E_B.  The oscillation of that DQ will go in-and-out of sync with the BQ background at frequency F_D=E_D/h.

Ordinary Mass and Energy.  These energy differences, the E_Ds, are the only energy which is available to us or can be detected by us.  Each and every BQ has its own very much larger quantity of energy E_B, but all that tremendous quantity of background energy is completely un-available to us, and un-detectable by us.  Its existence can only be hypothesized as an explanation of the known facts of the observable universe.  The similarity between energy, frequency and wavelength of quantum particles to the energy, beat-frequency, and beat-wavelength of acoustics leads to the conclusion that quantum gravity and possibly all quantum phenomena, may also involve beat-frequencies.  In other words, energy-exchange interactions do not represent the total energy involved, but only some very slight differences between much larger quantities of energy.

DQ vs BQ Energy.  Every BQ has exactly the same energy E_B, and so the BQ oscillations never interfere with each other.  Every DQ has a slightly different energy by an amount E_D with no restrictions on its energy other than that E_D is always much lower energy than E_B.  And because of that energy difference, every DQ is periodically interfering with the BQ background oscillations, so that DQ is surrounded by beat-frequency oscillations at the beat frequency F_D.  These beat-frequency oscillations are the gravitational field (GF) of that DQ.  Every DQ of the universe is surrounded by a GF which is directly proportional to its energy-difference E_D and inversely proportional to the radial distance from that DQ.  The total GF at any point in space and time is the sum total of all the GFs arriving at that point in space and time from every DQ of the entire universe.

Shapes of Oscillations.  Immediately near the DQ producing the beat-frequency oscillations which are the GF of that DQ, the oscillations are all radially symmetric 3D motions.  But as they move radially outward, they more-and-more become 1D oscillations, as they get further from their source and enter regions containing other influences.

Photons.  A light wave, or photon, is a wave which carries a specific quantity of energy, E_D, along a 1D path through spacetime.  Along the way, it sends out gravity waves (gravitons) forming a GF which is directly proportional to the energy of that photon and inversely proportional to the distance that photon was from the observation point at the moment when the GF left the photon.  A photon travels along a 1D path with no change in energy from start to finish of that path.  It travels at the speed of light, and that speed is reduced as the gravitational field is increased.

Gravitons.  A gravity wave (or graviton) is a beat-frequency wave traveling radially outward at speed V_B from the spacetime point (BQ) at which it was generated, with the number of gravitons being generated per unit time being equal to the frequency (energy) of the DQ generating it.  A graviton is a spherical wave traveling radially outward from its origin to an infinite distance from its origin, with its amplitude decreasing with distance traveled.

Gravitational Force. The force of gravity results from point-to-point variations in the gravitational field (GF) i.e. from a gravitational-field gradient (GFG).  A perfectly uniform GF produces no force in any direction on any form of ordinary mass, or energy, or dark matter.  Even though it produces no force, a uniform, zero-gradient GF has some very significant effects on ordinary mass and energy.

Force:  The drive for equal spacings and timings between equal gravitons is the origin of all the forces of the universe.  This is the basic, fundamental force which underlies all the other forces and everything of the universe.  Any force-field is a region of space containing very slight differences between G-wave spacings.  The force results from G-wave emissions (from the oscillating packets, quanta, which contain the energy) always tending to occur where they will equalize the distribution between G-wave spacings of that field.

Background Energy Movements:  All energy is perpetually oscillating between background-quantum particles, accumulating on one particle until it reaches the critical density (black-hole density) at which point it evaporates and is then absorbed by nearby particles until they reach that critical density and evaporate.  The evaporated energy travels at a constant speed.  The energy evaporated by one is partially absorbed by its nearest neighbors, with some of that energy going past the nearest and eventually being absorbed by ones further away.  The wavelength (i.e. the oscillation space) of that radiated quantum is the average radial distance traveled before absorption.

Photons in a High Gravitational Field.  As the GF increases, the forward motion of a photon becomes slower and slower because the GF produces many little zigzags in the path of the photon.  The total distance the photon moves in a given time interval is unchanged, but because of the transverse zigzag movements, the forward movement is decreased.  When a photon reaches the surface field of a black hole, GF_BH (the ‘event-horizon’ of the BH) its motion becomes nothing but zigzags and its forward motion entirely stops.  At the GF_BH field, photons stop moving.  The photon itself is composed of AQs. (As noted elsewhere, an AQ is a pair of coupled DMPs, oscillating synchronously with their oscillations 180^o apart.  The photon itself is composed of multiple AQs linked together.)  At the event horizon the links holding the photon’s AQs together come apart.  The AQs themselves also come apart, into the separate DMPs of which they are composed.  Those DMPs then go their separate ways, and if they encounter a GFG, they move in the direction opposite to the direction AQs would be moved by that GFG.

Mass in a High Gravitational Field.  Mass is energy which can remain at a stationary location in space.  Photons are energy which cannot remain stationary because they are compelled to perpetually move forward at the speed of light.  The energy of mass, like the energy of a photon, is composed of linked AQs.  Those AQs in mass must also keep moving at the same speed as in a photon.  But in mass, that energy is moving in a circle instead of on a straight line.  The radius of that orbit is fixed by the dimensions of the statoms.  That requisite fixed radius is constant, independent of the GF and GFG.  Any AQs moving on that orbit must have their wavelengths match the orbit in order for the DQs which compose them to have equal spacings between their graviton emissions.  (The drive for equal spacings and timings between equal gravitons is the origin of all the forces of the universe.) 

Total GF:  The GF at a given space-time point is the sum total of all the GFs arriving at that space-time point from all the (GF-producing) energy of the universe.  All of space is filled with quantum particles of background energy, each with background-particle energy E_P which is far greater energy than any of the GF-producing particles with their various ∆E (or E_D) energies.  But these background quantum particles (BQs), or spacetime atoms (statoms) or Planck particles (or whatever you want to call them) produce no GF whatsoever because they all have exactly the same energy E_B and so are all oscillating at exactly the same background-particle frequency, F_B.

Dark Matter:  The quantum wave function of a particle of energy is a mathematical function involving space-time oscillations.  It gives the probable space-time location of that particle, or of an energy-exchange interaction involving that particle.  It does all this in purely mathematical terms, with no clue as to the mechanism(s) responsible for this action.  To try to understand what is going on, we are using a mechanical cause-and effect analog with a fixed volume of something flowing back-and-forth between adjacent quanta.

DMP:  A particle of dark matter (DMP) is a quantum particle with energy ∆E.  This DMP energy, ∆E, is a much smaller quantity of energy than the E_P energy of the statom particle.  Since oscillation time and oscillation space are inversely proportional to quantum energy, the ∆E has a much larger oscillation space and much larger oscillation time period (much lower oscillation frequency) than a statom.

Gravity:  In this model, dark matter particles (DMPs) are the source of all gravity.  Coupled DMPS are the building blocks of every bit of ordinary E=mc² photon-energy and mass-energy of the universe.  Where there is a gradient in the gravitational field (GF), coupled DMPs move toward the source of the gravity.  Lone DMPs move more slowly, and can move the opposite direction, away from the source of the gravity.  A Black Hole (BH) is a region of space containing the maximum possible GF (which we are calling GF_BH).  A BH contains no ordinary energy or mass because any such coupled DMP particle entering a GF_BH field is immediately torn apart into its pure dark matter constituents, lone DMPs.  The event horizon of a BH is a spherical equilibrium bi-layer.  The outer layer is ordinary mass & energy (coupled DMPs).  The inner layer is dark matter (lone DMPs).  Ordinary mass particles are being pulled in and torn apart by the GF_BH field into lone DMPs. On their way out, they meet similar lone DMPs, with the two joining to become ordinary matter, which is then pulled back in.  Ordinary matter is going in, and dark matter is going out at the same rate.  The outer layer of ordinary mass and energy (coupled DMPs) and inner layer (lone DMPs) are both perpetually generating gravity and keeping the interior field at GF_BH.

Mass-Energy Equivalence:  E=mc² means that energy in the form of photons and energy in the form of mass are two different forms of the same thing.  Both photon-energy and mass-energy are time-space oscillations.  The term ‘mass’ includes both dark-matter and ordinary matter.  In this particle-multiverse model, ‘spacetime’ is also included in this equivalence.  In other words, this model uses a Mass-Energy-Spacetime Equivalence.

Units of Time:  In this model, all time is measured by an absolutely constant unit of time.  This contrasts with the standard models.  In order to treat the speed of light as a constant, relativity theory uses a variable unit of time, called ‘dilated’ time or ‘local-clock’ time.  This dilated unit of time varies with the gravitational field (GF) and velocity of the reference frame.  This makes the speed of light appear to be constant and independent of GF and velocity.  It also makes photon energy appear to increase as GF increases.  If the speed of light is the distance a photon moves in a given unit of time, it seems erroneous to say the speed of light is constant when that unit of time is variable.

Speed of Light:  In this new model the speed of light (c, the speed at which photons move) is NOT constant.  In this model, c is a function of GF such that c decreases as GF increases.  This reduction of c with increasing GF is a reduction of the photon oscillation space (wavelength) as GF increases.  But there is NO change in oscillation time (energy).  A with a constant unit of time, this reduced wavelength is NOT an increase of photon energy.  In this model, any specific photon has an energy (oscillation frequency and time) which is absolutely constant and independent of GF.  With a constant unit of time, a photon’s energy is independent of the GF that photon happens to be traveling through.  Any photon’s energy is independent of any wavelength-change which a GF change has imposed on that photon.

Photon Wavelength & GF:  A photon’s wavelength is the macroscopic 1D distance the photon travels during one space-time oscillation.  Time is one-dimensional (1D) so a GF cannot make any change in the oscillation time of a photon.  But space is 3D, so a GF can deflect some of the many statom-to-statom transfers (which a photon makes during one oscillation) into directions other than the one along which the photon is traveling.  A GF can add many little 3D zigzags to the photon path, while making no change in the number of statom-to-statom transfers in each oscillation.  The result is that the GF reduces the photon’s macroscopic wavelength, without changing its absolute energy, its absolute oscillation time, or its sub-sub-microscopic distance traveled.

When the unit of time varies with the GF and velocity of the reference frame, c is a constant of the math, photon energy is inversely proportional to oscillation time and inversely proportional to oscillation space.

When the unit of time is independent of GF and velocity, that which remains constant for a photon quantum is its oscillation time, its energy.  But the photon oscillation space (wavelength) is variable, decreasing as GF increases.

Variable Rest Mass:  That which remains constant for a mass quantum is its oscillation space (the wavelength of its circulating energy).  But the oscillation time (energy) of the mass-quantum is variable.  Since wavelength of a fixed quantity of energy decreases as GF increases, the circulating energy of a mass-quantum must decrease as GF increases in order for the circulating energy to have no change in wavelength.  A result of this is that any rest-mass particle (RMP) such as an electron, proton, atom, etc. has a lower rest-mass energy (RME) when it is in a higher GF than in a lower GF.  The GF contribution of any given RMP (to the total GF of any larger mass on which that RMP resides) is directly proportional to the RME of that RMP.  The result is that when any RMP goes down in a GF, its contribution to that GF has decreased.  The standard models recognize the fact of this GF decrease but attribute it to interaction with something called the negative-gravitational-potential-energy of the field.

Variable vs Constant Unit-of-Time:  The standard models with their variable unit of time say that photons gain energy on their way down in the field and lose it on their way up out of the field.  With the constant unit of time, photon wavelength decreases on the way down and increases on the way up.  But photon energy is completely unchanged on the way down or up.  It is a fact that the wavelengths and energies of photons emitted by any given atomic element appear to be the same whether up or down in a GF.  This is because those energies are being calculated by the dilated unit of time, which is longer outside the GF than inside.  The unit of length is the same inside or outside the field because the unit of length is the number of atoms between two points in space, and the size of those atoms is constant and independent of the GF because the sizes of the orbits of the circulating energies are fixed by the fixed size of the statom.

Rest-Mass Energy (RME):  With the constant unit of time, some of the circulating RME is converted to kinetic energy on the way down and must be resupplied to move that mass back up.  As any rest-mass particle (RMP) goes into the event horizon of a black hole (BH), every last bit of its circulating RME is converted to kinetic energy, its RME goes to zero, and it enters that BH as free-energy, which is dark matter.

To understand in detail the mechanisms behind these constants and variables see the sections on mechanisms of Spacings, Gravity, Electric Charges, Dark Matter, etc.

Mechanism which produces Different Spacings between Mass Quanta and Photon Quanta

Photons:  Energy in its photon form has a constant oscillation time, i.e. frequency (number of oscillations per unit of time) or time period (number of absolute units of time per oscillation).  Multiple quanta of energy in the photon form can occupy (almost) the same space at the same time.  This is because photon energy is traveling straight ahead, so the leading edges of the quanta can be within a few BQ spaces of each other with no interference, no interaction, and no energy exchange.

Rest-Mass Particles (RMPs):  Every particle of mass is energy which can remain at a fixed macroscopic location in space.  Every particle of mass-energy contains a particle, or particles, of electric charge.  This may be electronic charge or quark charge.  All energy (whether photon-energy, mass-energy, dark-matter-energy, or background statom energy) is perpetually moving from BQ-to-BQ at the maximum possible velocity, V_B.

Mass & Gravity:  Where there is a zero GF, the BQs are all equally spaced, and all successive transfers are all in a straight line.  But in a GF, many BQs may be momentarily displaced from their normal equilibrium locations as a result of the gravity-waves moving through that region.  Those momentary BQ displacements result in deviations from the straight-line path, introducing many little zigzags in the path.  The total distance moved (when all those sub-microscopic zigzags are counted) is the same with or without the GF.  But the total macroscopic forward distance moved is reduced by the zigzags of the GF.  This is the mechanism whereby c, and photon wavelength, are reduced by a GF.  It is also the mechanism causing mass to accelerate toward the higher GF where there is a GF gradient.

Pauli Exclusion Principle:  Energy in its mass form has a constant oscillation space, and no two quanta of mass energy can oscillate through the same space at the same time.  The reason for this is that in its mass form, the energy is not traveling straight ahead, but is traveling (at velocity c) on a fixed-radius circular or spiral path.  This results in oscillation spaces overlapping and exchanging energy, pushing the quanta apart if they get too close.  This circular motion permits mass-energy-quanta to remain stationary in space, or to move through space at any velocity less than c.

Why Rest-Mass changes as GF changes:  In mass, the orbit of the circulating energy must be an integral number of wavelengths of that energy.  The orbit size is fixed by the size of the BQs, and is independent of the GF.  But any increase in GF adds many little zigzags to the path of energy, thereby decreasing its wavelength.  (Wavelength is the forward distance traveled in a fixed absolute time, a fixed number of BQ-to-BQ transfers, a fixed quantity of energy.)  Therefore any increase in GF is accompanied by a reduction of the wavelength of the circulating energy.  Therefore any GF increase must be accompanied by a decrease in the circulating energy, so as to keep its wavelength matching the fixed-size orbit.

Mechanism of Electric Fields and Electric Charges:  A photon has 2 DMPs (always in opposite phases of their ongoing + and – oscillations) separated from each other in the direction perpendicular to the direction of travel of the photon.  The oscillating electric field of a photon is a result of that charge separation, and cannot remain stationary.  An electric charge can remain stationary because its charges (like those of a photon) are always moving, but in a circle instead of on a straight line.  The DMPs of the electric charge always keep one phase inside the circle, and the other phase on the outside.  An electronic charge is a 3D region of space in which the BQs have been compressed radially toward a central region, and expanded radially outwardly in the surrounding regions, to the extent of a one-BQ difference in volume between the inner and outer regions.  The opposite electronic charge is a 3D region where the central region is compressed and the outer expanded.  For a detailed description of the mechanism producing these charges, see the sections on dark matter, gravity, and available matter.

Quantum Space-Time Oscillations:  The compressions and expansions which are electric charges and electric fields are made possible by the very nature of the oscillation of the quantum itself, which is a quantum particle of energy.  The math of quantum mechanics gives an oscillating wave function which tells the probability of a specific particle being located at a specific location in space and time.  But it tells us nothing about what is oscillating or what the particle is doing during its oscillations.  Something real is taking place at that oscillation frequency.  In this model, the space-time oscillation is a periodic expansion and contraction into and out of some specific region of space, one in-out cycle for each oscillation period.  If the total energy of a given quantum is constant, it means that it is oscillating between a low-energy-density state and a high-energy-density state.  In this model these two states correspond to + and – electric charges.  We are calling the high-energy density the + electric charge.  Neighboring BQs are always 180^o out of phase so that they alternately occupy the same region of space with no interference.  Although individual electric charges are always changing, net electric charges of the background empty-space BQs are always neutral.

Electron Structure:  The macroscopic electric charges of electrons and quarks occur because those particles are composed of energy quantities slightly different from the background.  Each BQ has an energy E_B, oscillating through a space of size S_B in a time period T_B.  A quantum particle with energy E_D oscillates through a much larger space, with size S_D=S_B E_B/E_D in a much larger time period T_D=T_BE_B/E_D.  This means that they are going in-phase and out-of-phase with the background, at the beat-frequency difference with the background.  During one half of this beat-frequency cycle, the + charge outweighs the –, and during the other half, the – outweighs the +.  In a photon particle, the outside world sees simultaneously both the + and the – regions, on opposite sides of the photon path.

Mass-Particle Structure:  In a mass particle, the E_D is at an energy which matches the path curvature to the beat frequency, such that the circulating quanta always have their + side toward the center and their –side outward, or vice-versa.  The result is that one charge is confined to the center, and the outside world sees only the opposite charge.  In the ordinary electron, the outside world sees only the – charge.  In the anti-electron, the direction is reversed so the outside world sees only the + charge.  The path-curvature of a mass-quantum results from compression of statoms in one region of space and expansion in another.

Quarks:  Quarks are a much more complex picture because only the 3D charges are completely stable.  A stable configuration of quarks can be made only when the 1D or 2D quark charges add up to a zero or 3D charge, surrounded by a spherically-symmetric electric field.  3D electric charges are stable because they permit energy transfers only along the radial direction.  1D or 2D charges are unstable because they allow transverse energy transfers which do not form repeatable oscillations.  A quark charge is a similar compression and expansion, but along only 1D or 2D regions of space instead of along a 3D radial spherically-symmetric region.

A History of Our Universe

Before the Big Bang:  Before our universe began, there was nothing but ‘empty’ space, i.e. the spacetime background consisting of all-identical background quantum particles (BQs) as described in the section on gravity.  This background extended in all directions to infinity, to as far as the mind can possibly imagine with no boundaries because the mind cannot imagine what could be on the other side of any boundary.  In this sea of BQs there was no gravity but there was some noise.  Such noise is non-repetitive random 1D movements of BQs.  These go from one BQ to another with no change in the energy of those BQs.  The energy of a BQ is a 3D radial oscillation which cannot be changed by anything but 3 simultaneous orthogonal movements.  Therefore, 1D movements produce no change in the energy of a BQ and are simply passed on as 1D movements to neighboring BQs.

The Big Bang:  Absolute conservation of energy, i.e. ‘energy can neither be created nor destroyed’, is a fundamental law of physics.  All the available energy which makes up all atoms and photons plus the detectable energy (but not available, at least not yet) of the universe is taken to have originated with the Big Bang and to have been constant ever since.  In this ‘particle multiverse’ model, the background energy far exceeds all the available and detectable energy of the universe, so it is conceivable that the ‘big bang’ was simply a conversion of some of this background energy.

Start of Energy-Conversion Process:  Because the background noise movements are all random in size, timing and direction, there is a low but finite probability that 3 with matching size and timing and orthogonal directions will simultaneously hit a single BQ.  When that happens, those noise movements will change the 3D energy of that BQ, giving it an E_D energy difference, making it a DQ, out-of-sync with its surrounding neighbors.  On the next BQ oscillation cycle that E_D is subdivided and passes on to them, along with the G-wave which is the start of the GF of that first DQ.  At this stage, those E_Ds are all 3D because they are on a spherical surface where any outer 1D radial movement involves somewhat-smaller 2D transverse movements along the circumference of the sphere.  Since these are all simultaneous 3D movements, they are able to change the energy content of every BQ they go through, converting those BQs into DQs.

Completion of Energy-Conversion Process:  This BQ to DQ conversion process continues on out until the radius is large enough for the accompanying transverse movements to be too small to convert any further BQ energy into DQ energy.  At this point in absolute time, all the E_D difference-energy (E_UD) of our universe has been formed.  Our universe is the region of space occupied by the E_UD.  At this point in time, our entire universe, with its total difference energy E_UD, occupied a volume somewhere around the size of a proton.  But the radius of our universe was (and still is) increasing at the maximum possible speed, the background speed (V_B) the speed of BQ-to-BQ energy transfer.  From this point on, there were no further conversions of BQ energy to DQ energy.  The E_D energy of any one DQ was simply subdivided among the one or more BQs involved in an interaction and from there moved on to neighboring BQs in the next interaction.  As the universe kept expanding in this way its total energy E_UD was being spread out, in smaller and smaller E_Ds, over more and more BQs.

Figures which might be drawn to illustrate the big bang.

Figure 1.  Empty space before the big bang.  3D array of BQs, all oscillating synchronously in 3D, neighbors 180^o out of phase.  Everything perfectly uniform except for some noise, which is randomly located, randomly moving 1D noise displacements which are too small to produce any changes or transfers of BQ energies.

Figure 2.  One BQ is simultaneously hit by 2 or 3 large 1D noise displacements which are absorbed, changing the energy (oscillation frequency) of that BQ.

Figure 3.  Being out-of-sync with its neighbors in more than one dimension, that BQ transfers energy to them, putting them out-of-sync with all the surrounding matrix of BQs.  These energy transfers occur because the BQs are out of sync in both the radial and transverse directions.

Figure 4. The size of the BQ oscillation in space is ~1.6E –35 meter and in time ~ 5.4 E –44 second.  If the total energy of the universe is the energy of the BQs contained in a sphere of radius ~1E –15 meter, it means that the conversion of BQ energy to DMP energy went out to a radial distance of ~6E20 BQs.  At this radius, the circumference of a circle would contain ~6πE20 BQs = ~2E21 BQs.  A radial length increase of one BQ length would be divided among all those circumferential BQs, so this would be a lateral size increase of ~5E –22 BQ length for each BQ at this radius.  The conversion of BQ energy to DMP energy probably stopped at this radius because the lateral displacements became too small to produce BQ-to-BQ energy transfers, and all the lateral displacements were taken care of by the 1D radial displacements.

Figure 5.  Conversion of BQ quantum-energy to free-energy has stopped.  At this stage, the universe contains its total, constant-quantity, of free energy (E_U) released by the big bang.  This E_U energy occupies a spherical region with radius R_U, the radius of the universe.  R_U continues to expand at the maximum possible velocity, the speed of BQ-to-BQ energy transfer.  Density of the free energy decreases as the constant E_U continues to spread radially outward over the still-intact matrix of BQs.  Stable DMPs cannot form because the free-energy density is too high for energy to go through complete quantum oscillation cycles without colliding with (and transferring energy to) other potential DMP quanta.  Gravitational field (GF) is much higher than GF_BH, but keeps decreasing throughout the universe as R_U increases.

Figure 6.  After RU had expanded to ~15 billion light years (~6E50 BQ oscillations) GF had dropped below the GF_BH value, thereby allowing stable DMPs to form.  All of E_U then organized into stable DMPs.  A small percentage of these then condensed into AQs which then further condensed into photons, electrons, protons, atoms, stars, galaxies, sun, earth, and us.  As R_U was increasing, GF was decreasing throughout the entire universe, not just at the outer edge.  So the condensation was essentially simultaneous throughout the entire universe.

Figure 7.  After the condensation, those DMPs which had not been condensed into AQs continued moving outward just as they had been doing because DMPs (which create all GF) are always moved toward the lower GF.  But as soon as AQs began to condense, they stopped moving outward.  This occurred because all AQs are always moving at the speed of light, and this motion always takes them toward the higher GF, rather than toward the lower GF.

Figure 8.  Photons which we are receiving today from distant galaxies have lower energies than the energies those same elements emit in our own or nearby galaxies.  The standard models of physics attribute that red-shift to motion of those galaxies away from us.  In this model, a more logical explanation of the red-shift is that the GF was higher back then, when that light was being emitted.  When those stars formed, billions of years ago, they were in a higher GF because the dark-matter density was higher.  Since then, although the stars stopped moving out, the dark-matter continued moving out, everywhere.  The result is that, everywhere in the universe, the dark-matter density is now lower than it was billions of years ago.  And the background gravity, 90% of which is generated by dark matter, is correspondingly lower.

Gravitational Field (GF) Decreases as Universe Expands:  If we consider one gravitational wave, or graviton, to be generated with each DQ-BQ beat frequency oscillation cycle, then the total number of gravitons per unit time generated by E_UD is constant.  The total GF at any point in space and time is directly proportional to the frequencies of the gravitons and inversely proportional to the distance they have traveled since being generated.  Therefore, the total GF at any given point keeps decreasing because the distance gravitons must travel to reach that point keeps increasing as the universe expands.  At the very center of the universe, the place where the big-bang occurred, the total number of gravitons per unit time arriving is constant because the EUD is constant, but the GF is decreasing because the gravitons are coming from further and further away.  At any location away from the center, there will be an additional reduction in GF because some of those E_Ds are too far away for their gravitons to have yet reached that off-center point.  In addition, GF at inner locations is reduced because gravitons coming from outer locations have their oscillation frequencies reduced by the movement of those outer locations away from the inner ones.

Structure and Oscillatory Motions of Dark-Matter Particles (DMPs):  A DMP is a lone quantum with difference energy, E_D, which is very small compared to the BQ background quantum energy, E_B.  That E_D has a central core location where its oscillations are exactly in phase with the F_B oscillations of the BQs.  But surrounding that core are spherical regions which are oscillating in-and-out-of-phase with the (F_B, E_B) background oscillations at the (F_D, E_D) beat frequency.  There may be several different ways to describe these oscillations and the transfer of the E_D to some different core location.

Movement of E_D Out from Core to Reflection:  One way might be to say that, at one BQ oscillation cycle, the E_D is entirely on one BQ at the center of the core.  Then on the next BQ cycle, that core BQ goes back to its normal E_B energy and transfers the E_D radially outward to the nearest and next-nearest BQs.  These, on their next cycle transfer it radially outward to the next semi-spherical layer of BQs, and so on, and so on.  In all these transfers, the space part of the ED space-time oscillation decreases in proportion to the number of BQs over which that ED is distributed.  But the time part of that oscillation remains constant because time has only 1 dimension, while space has 3 dimensions.  Eventually the ED and BQ oscillation phases are such that both are attempting to occupy the same space-time location, which they cannot do.  The result is that, at the E_D oscillation absolute time interval, each small space-portion of the E_D is reflected by 180^o, over the entire spherical surface, back toward where it came from.

Reflection of E_D, Graviton Generation:  That reflection produces a gravity wave, a graviton, a spherical surface on which BQs are momentarily (i.e. for one BQ oscillation cycle) displaced from their normal locations.  The amplitude of the space-displacement of a graviton at any distance of n BQs from the E_D which generated that graviton is equal to the radius, S_B, of one BQ space oscillation, divided by n.  In other words, a graviton’s amplitude is inversely proportional to distance from its origin, and is independent of the energy difference E_D of its origin.  At any location in space, The GF of an E_D, at any location in space away from that E_D, is directly proportional to the number of gravitons per unit time arriving at that location, and directly proportional to their amplitude.  And since the amplitude is inversely proportional to distance from the source, the GF is inversely proportional to distance from the source.  The GF is also affected by relative velocity because rate of the reception of gravitons is increased or decreased by relative motions.

Movement of a DMP (E_D) to New Core Location:  If all the space that E_D DMP went through during its oscillation time period is uniform, that DMP E_D arrives at its original core location after one E_D oscillation time period.  If there were background GF variations, such as a GFG (GF gradient) in the space through which that E_D oscillated, there may be a change in the new core location.  The expansion of the universe results from DMPs always moving toward the region of lower GF.

Kinetic Energy and Inertia of DMP:  A DMP has no kinetic energy and no inertia.  A DMP is moved from one absolute location to another only if that other location has a lower GF than its current location.  In the absence of any GFG, the DMP location remains completely stationary in absolute space.  The DMP simply sits there, oscillating out-and-in around its core location.  Ordinary mass has kinetic energy and inertia, which means that ordinary mass remains stationary unless given some 1D kinetic energy which moves it in the 1D direction of that kinetic energy.  And that ordinary mass has inertia, which means that once given that 1D energy, that mass continues to move at constant velocity and direction until its kinetic energy is changed.

Dark-Matter (Black-Hole) Era:  During the first 15 billion years or so of absolute time after the big bang, the universe was 100% dark matter, i.e. lone DQs (lone DMPs, lone E_Ds) no ordinary mass and energy.  The reason for this was that, back then, the gravitational field (GF) throughout the entire universe exceeded the black-hole limit, GF_BH.  Ordinary mass and energy cannot exist in any region of space where the GF exceeds GF_BH.  All ordinary matter and energy consists of 2 or more energy differences (E_Ds) which are linked together, and can stay together through repeated BQ-to-BQ transfers and beat-frequency (F_D, E_D) oscillation cycles.  Any GF is a region containing gravitons (momentary dislocations or perturbations) in the BQ matrix.  Gravitons in the oscillation space of an E_D can change its oscillation time and energy.  A GF_BH is a region where the graviton density is so high that the linked E_Ds cannot go through full oscillations without being knocked apart.  So the entire universe remained with no ordinary matter until it had expanded to the radius where the GF could fall below the GF_BH value.  Based on current estimates of the size of the universe, this would be a radius of somewhere around 15 billion light-years, or 15 V_G-years, where V_G is the velocity of gravity waves.

Gravitons and Gravity Waves:  It seems gravitons would have to be particulate because for the GF to decrease linearly with distance as the radius gets larger and larger, it seems there would have to be communicating along the spherical surface.  But if the gravitons are particulate the GF is getting weaker and weaker simply because the constant-size gravitons are getting further and further apart.  A gravity wave is a moving variation in the density of gravitons.  An individual graviton has no wave characteristics, no oscillations, and no energy of its own.  A graviton is simply a fixed-size 1D perturbation of a BQ which remains on one specific BQ for only one BQ oscillation cycle and is then transferred to a nearby BQ along the direction the 1D space dimension of that graviton.  The GF in any specific-3D volume of space at any specific time is the number of gravitons in that space at that time.  The GF is a scalar quantity, i.e. is independent of the directions those gravitons are moving.  The GFG (gravitational-field gradient) at any point in space is a vector quantity corresponding to the rate of change of GF around that point.

End of the Dark-Matter Black-Hole Era:  After the universe had expanded for somewhere around 15 billion years of absolute time, the GF fell below GF_BH, allowing some small fraction of the dark-matter to condense into ordinary mass and energy.  Careful examination of the cosmic microwave background may be able to tell us where the center is and how far we are located from the center.

Condensation Period:  Did the partial condensation of dark matter to ordinary mass and energy take place simultaneously throughout the entire universe, or did it begin at the outer edge and then gradually advance toward the center?  This decrease of GF to a value below GF_BH might have occurred close to simultaneously throughout the entire universe because the GF was decreasing everywhere during that long expansion, so the condensation may have spread from edge to center in a very short period of time.  Some clues as to the time for the condensation to spread from the edge to the center might be obtained by comparison of galactic distances and structures nearby and far away.  When we look at the outer distant galaxies, we see how they were some 14 billion years ago.  If they appear the same as nearby galaxies, it means that either (1) things do not change much in 14 billion years, or (2) the nearby galaxies started 14 billion years after the distant ones, i.e. that it took some 14 billion years for the condensation to spread from those outer regions to our region.

Inflation:  The period between the big bang and the formation of ordinary mass and energy is the period referred to as ‘inflation’ in the standard models of physics.  The standard models say the entire expansion period was instantaneous because they measure time by the ‘dilated’ unit of time.  That dilated unit of time becomes longer as GF increases, and goes to infinity at GF_BH.

Conversion of Dark Matter to Ordinary Matter and Energy (Coupling of Dark-Matter Particles):  At that time, there was a high density of various-energy E_Ds.  Many pairs with matching energies could meet, link up, and stay together.  From this point on we will refer to a linked pair of DQs as a double quantum particle, a DDQ.  These linked pairs of DQs, these DDQs, are the building blocks of every bit of mass and energy available to us.  During the condensation, all the DDQs and more complex particles might all have been formed with some absolute random velocities, i.e. kinetic energies, made up of the differences in energies of the DQs from which they were formed.  Clouds of lone DQs, and the total energy in a given cloud, can be detected by us through the GF they produce.  But there is no known way for the energies of those lone DQs to be made available to us, or for us to even measure the energy of a lone DQ.  For all we know the energies of the lone DQs may be too low for them to ever be linked, i.e. it may be below the (theorized but not yet established) rest-mass energy of the neutrino.

E_D Oscillations:  A reflection occurs at the 180^o out-of-phase radius because, all over that spherical surface, two maximum possible compressions are arriving at each BQ of that surface at the same time.  This reflection produces a spherical wave which continues moving radially out through the BQ matrix without ever being reflected.  On the way out and on the way in, these E_D beat-frequency waves are on those BQs which are in the matching stage of their oscillations.  Adjacent BQs are always in opposite phases of their oscillations, and are changing phase at the background frequency F_B.  Therefore, in order to remain on a BQ in phase with itself, the E_D must move out radially one BQ oscillation wavelength, W_B, for every BQ oscillation.  In a DMP, that movement is radially out from and back toward a central location.  In an AQ, that movement is in one direction or the other along the line joining the two E_Ds (DMPs) or perpendicular to the line joining them.

Neutrinons:  These two linked-DQ particles, these AQs, are known as neutrinos and antineutrinos.  The only known difference between the two is their spin, which is left-handed for the neutrino, and right handed for the antineutrino, relative to the direction of travel.  We are referring to them collectively as neutrinons.  There are 3 varieties of them, known as the e-, mu-, and tau-neutrinon.  The differences between these 3 are in how closely the DQs comprising them are spaced.  The e- is closest, with the two complementary DQs on adjacent complementary BQs. The mu- has the next possible spacing, and the tau- the furthest possible spacing.

Motions of Neutrinons:  A significant difference between a lone DQ and a DDQ (a linked pair of DQs) is in their motion through space.  A lone DQ with its energy difference E_D from the BQ sits at a core location where its oscillations are superimposed on, and in sync with, the background oscillations.  But because of the E_D energy and F_D frequency difference, the oscillations will become more and more out-of-phase with the background oscillations over a spherical surface surrounding the core.  Eventually it is 180^o out-of-phase with the background and is reflected back toward the core.

Gravity Waves:  Gravity waves are generated at the beat frequency F_D of the energy difference E_D from the background.  They start out at the BQ size, S_B, and continue on out with their amplitude decreasing by a factor of 2 with every doubling of the distance they have traveled.  They continue traveling on for an infinite distance, or until their amplitude is so low they are simply part of the background noise.

Quantum Energy Differences, EDs:  Each quantum has a fixed quantity of energy.  The total energy contained in a fixed number of quanta is the sum of the individual energies of all those separate quanta.  Their total energy is the sum total number of oscillations they make per absolute unit of time.  Their total oscillation space is the sum total of their individual oscillation spaces.  It can be shown mathematically that the total oscillation space is minimized if the total energy is equally divided between all the quanta.  Any energy differences between quanta result in an increase in total oscillation volume.  The quantum with the higher energy occupies a smaller volume and the one with the lower energy a greater volume, but any such energy difference always results in a net increase in total oscillation volume.

Hierarchy of particles

Fundamental Particle of the Multiverse.  There is one type of fundamental particle which makes up everything in the multiverse.  That one type of particle is a quantum particle with the highest concentration of energy which can exist, with its quantum oscillations occupying the smallest space and shortest time period which can exist.  It may be the Planck particle, the smallest black-hole which can exist, considered to be hypothetical because it would theoretically evaporate as radiant energy as soon as it condensed to that size.  These quantized particles are packed together in an array or matrix which is the absolute background on which everything inside and outside the universe takes place.  This fundamental particle might be called the space-time atom (or statom) or the background quantum (or BQ) or the space-time particle (or STP) or whatever name for it you prefer.

BQ:  The BQ is a 4D particle of energy oscillating through the 3D quantity of space, and 1D quantity of time, which it occupies.  There may be a 1D transfer to it from a nearby BQ, but on its next cycle it will transfer that excess energy to a different BQ.  Through all this, that BQ is sending out G-waves which exactly match those of all its neighbors. Therefore, there is zero gradient in the GF of the background BQs.  Some gravitational effects (such as G-force) arise whenever and wherever there is a gradient in the GF, a difference in G-wave density from one point to another.  Others (such as slowing of clock-tick rates) arise from the absolute value of GF, with or without a gradient.

Fundamental Particle of the Universe.  There is one type of fundamental particle which is the building block for all the much more complex particles of ordinary mass and energy.  That one type of particle is the Dark Matter Particle (DMP).  All the DMPs of the universe were formed in the BIG BANG.  A DMP is a quantity of energy, E_D, much smaller than the quantity of energy, E_B, of a BQ.  The DMP oscillates radially over a region of the much smaller, much-faster-oscillating BQs.  The BIG BANG was a ‘once-in-a-universe’ event in which all the energy of the BQs contained in a volume about the size of a proton was converted into DMPs and spread out over the surrounding BQs.  Since then, these DMPs have been spreading out over the surrounding BQs as DMP quantum particles with ever lower-and-lower energy, oscillating over ever larger volumes of space and periods of time.

Energies of Particles.  The distribution of DMP energy at the BQ level is analogous to the distribution of ordinary energy in ordinary matter.  The BQs are very much like ordinary atoms in that each BQ, like each atom, consists of a fixed quantity of quantized energy, oscillating through some repeating volume of space, in a repeating period of time.  Thermal energy can momentarily change the total energy of an atom by adding a 1D bit of kinetic energy to it, but that atom interacts with other atoms through collisions with them, transfers that 1D bit of thermal energy on to them, and goes back to its normal quantity of energy, its rest energy.  At normal temperatures, the thermal energy of atoms loses its quantization because there are so many various-size quanta floating around that the atom-to atom collisions change the path of the energy before any one quantum can complete an oscillation cycle.  But at temperatures close to absolute zero, such as in a Bose-Einstein condensate, thermal energy can become quantized.  Gravity waves seem to interact with BQs in the same way that thermal energy interacts with atoms.